This link has been bookmarked by 10 people . It was first bookmarked on 07 Aug 2007, by Jeremy Price.
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05 Aug 08
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experts have acquired extensive knowledge that affects what they notice and how they organize, represent, and interpret information in their environment
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Experts usually mentioned the major principle(s) or law(s) that were applicable to the problem, together with a rationale for why those laws applied to the problem and how one could apply them (Chi et al., 1981).
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The diagram is often elaborated as the expert seeks to find a workable solution path
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Experts' problem piles are arranged on the basis of the principles that can be applied to solve the problems; novices' piles are arranged on the basis of the problems' surface attributes.
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sets of related
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Experts appear to possess an efficient organization of knowledge with meaningful relations among related elements clustered into related units that are governed by underlying concepts and principles
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sequential search
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Within this picture of expertise, "knowing more" means having more conceptual chunks in memory, more relations or features defining each chunk, more interrelations among the chunks, and efficient methods for retrieving related chunks and procedures for applying these informational units in problem-solving contexts (Chi et al., 1981).
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Experts do not have to search through everything they know in order to find what is relevant; such an approach would overwhelm their working memory (Miller, 1956).
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Knowledge that is not conditionalized is often "inert" because it is not activated, even though it is relevant (Whitehead, 1929).
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People's abilities to retrieve relevant knowledge can vary from being "effortful" to "relatively effortless" (fluent) to "automatic" (Schneider and Shiffrin, 1977). Automatic and fluent retrieval are important characteristics of expertise.
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An important aspect of learning is to become fluent at recognizing problem types in particular domains
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so that appropriate solutions can be easily retrieved from memory.
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The use of instructional procedures that speed pattern recognition are promising in this regard (e.g., Simon, 1980).
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"adaptive expertise"
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"metacognition"--the ability to monitor one's current level of understanding and decide when it is not adequate.
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Beliefs about what it means to be an expert can affect the degree to which people explicitly search for what they don't know and take steps to improve the situation.
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The concept of adaptive expertise (Hatano and Ignaki, 1986) provides an important model of successful learning. Adaptive experts are able to approach new situations flexibly and to learn throughout their lifetimes. They not only use what they have learned, they are metacognitive and continually question their current levels of expertise and attempt to move beyond them. They don't simply attempt to do the same things more efficiently; they attempt to do things better. A major challenge for theories of learning is to understand how particular kinds of learning experiences develop adaptive expertise or "virtuosos."
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An emphasis on the patterns perceived by experts suggests that pattern recognition is an important strategy for helping students develop confidence and competence. These patterns provide triggering conditions for accessing knowledge that is relevant to a task.
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First, the six principles of expertise need to be considered simultaneously, as parts of an overall system. We divided our discussion into six points in order to facilitate explanation, but each point interacts with the others;
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Metacognition can help students develop personally relevant pedagogical content knowledge, analogous to the pedagogical content knowledge available to effective teachers (principle 5). In short, students need to develop the ability to teach themselves.
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what they will learn depends on how much they know already.
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16 Apr 08
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28 Feb 08
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experts have acquired extensive knowledge that affects what they notice and how they organize, represent, and interpret information in their environment. This, in turn, affects their abilities to remember, reason, and solve problems.
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the study of expertise shows what the results of successful learning look like.
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masters were more likely to recognize meaningful chess configurations and realize the strategic implications of these situations; this recognition allowed them to consider sets of possible moves that were superior to others.
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how they "chunk" various elements of a configuration that are related by an underlying function or strategy. Since there are limits on the amount of information that people can hold in short-term memory, short-term memory is enhanced when people are able to chunk information into familiar patterns (Miller, 1956).
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Lacking a hierarchical, highly organized structure for the domain, novices cannot use this chunking strategy.
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Skills similar to those of master chess players have been demonstrated for experts in other domains, including electronic circuitry (Egan and Schwartz, 1979), radiology (Lesgold, 1988), and computer programming (Ehrlich and Soloway, 1984). In each case, expertise in a domain helps people develop a sensitivity to patterns of meaningful information that are not available to novices.
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07 Aug 07
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23 Jul 07
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28 Feb 05
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People who have developed expertise in particular areas are, by definition, able to think effectively about problems in those areas. Understanding expertise is important because it provides insights into the nature of thinking and problem solving. Research shows that it is not simply general abilities, such as memory or intelligence, nor the use of general strategies that differentiate experts from novices. Instead, experts have acquired extensive knowledge that affects what they notice and how they organize, represent, and interpret information in their environment. This, in turn, affects their abilities to remember, reason, and solve problems.
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