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What is actually present in B should thus not depend upon the type of measurement carried out in the part of space, A; it should also be independent of whether or not, after all, a measurement is made in A(Einstein 1924, 1688–1689) But the force so defined is no longer directly accessible to expNor was it only the relativity and light principles that served Einstein as constraints in his theorizingSpacetime events, individuated invariantly as spacetime coincidences, have as much or more right to be taken as real, precisely because of the univocal manner of their determinationfield strength as the vector of the mechIn both instances what troubled Einstein was that a verificationist semantics made the link between theory and experience too strong, leaving too small a role for theory, itself, and the creative theorizing that produces itLikewise, Einstein faults classical Maxwellian electrodynamics for an asymmetry in the way it explains electromagnetic induction depending on whether it is the coil or the magnet that is assumed to be at restfield, no contradiction follows with the univocalness of eventsEinstein's clever reply includes a dialogue between two characters, “Reichenbach” and “Poincar,” in which “Reichenbach” concedes to “Poincar” that there are no perfectly rigid bodies in nature and that physics must be used to correct for such things as thermal deformations, from which it follows that what we actually test is geometry plus physics, not geometry alone

In 1946 he explained what he took to be Mach's basic error:Realism and separabilityAs Einstein answered the neo-Kantians, so Duhem answered this species of conventionalist: Yes, experiment cannot refute, say, the law of free fall by itself, but only because it is part of a larger theoretical whole that has empirical content only as a whole, and various other elements of that whole could as well be said to be, alone, immune to refutationOne is not surprised at Einstein's then citing Mach's critical analysis of the Newtonian conception of absolute space as a paradigm of what Mach, himself, termed the “historical-critical” method of philosophical analysis (Einstein 1916, 101, citing ChThat his faith in simplicity was reaffirmed is clear

Why, in practice, are physicists unaware of underdetermination? It is because ours is not the situation of “two different peoples pursu[ing] physics independently of one another.” Though Einstein does not say it explicitly, the implication seems to be that apparent determination in theory choice is mainly a consequence of our all being similarly socialized as we become members of a common scientific community(EA 9-363, ECP 8-173) Related Research ProjectsIn emphasizing the continuity and coherence in the development of Einstein's philosophy of science, I take issue with an account such as Gerald Holton's (1968), which claims to find a major philosophical break in the mid-1910s, in the form of a turn away from a sympathy for an anti-metaphysical positivism and toward a robust scientific realismSchlick similarly derides a defense grounded in considerations of mental economy, which he terms “intellectual indolence.” Why then choose simple theories? Schlick's answer is that “the greater simplicity of a theory depends on its containing fewer arbitrary elements.” Why is it better to choose theories with fewer “superfluous,” arbitrary elements? Because only the non-arbitrary elements are likely to correspond to reality, so in choosing the simpler theory “we are then sure of diverging from reality at least no further than is necessitated by the bounds of our knowledge as such” (Schlick 1915, 154–155)Any philosophy of science must include an account of the relation between theory and evidence3

force exerted on the unit of posIf a physical system stretches over the parts of space A and B, then what is present in B should somehow have an existence independent of what is present in AEinstein is here alluding the famous entropic analogy whereby, in his 1905 photon hypothesis paper, he reasoned from the fact that black body radiation in the Wien regime satisfied the Boltzmann principle to the conclusion that, in that regime, radiation behaved as if it consisted of mutually independent, corpuscle-like quanta of electromagnetic energyEinstein shared with Schlick and Reichenbach the goal of crafting a new form of empiricism that would be adequate to the task of defending general relativity against neo-Kantian critiques (see Schlick 1917 and 1921, and Reichenbach 1920, 1924, and 1928; for more detail, see Howard 1994a)In place of 12, the following reflections must appear 8c982d30e9

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